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| Chazan, Robert. Medieval Jewry in Northern France: A Political and Social History, (Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, 1973.) | |
| Katz, Jacob. Tradition and Crisis: Jewish Society at the End of the Middle Ages, (New York University Press, New York, 1993.) | |
| 1 | Mr. Robert Chazan was Melton Associate Professor of Jewish History and Studies at the Ohio State University. He is currently the Scheuer Professor of Jewish Studies at New York University. He has written seven books and published work in many journals in the United States, England, France, and Israel. He has been the President of the Association for Jewish Studies and the editor of its journal. Through Chazan's leadership positions, he has greatly impacted the growth and development of Jewish studies in the United States. |
| 2 | Mr. Jacob Katz lived from 1904-1998. He may be the greatest Historian of Judaism and the Jewish people of the Twentieth Century. He grew up in the crumbling Hapsburg Empire. As he grew older, he left his native Hungary to attend Yeshiva of Pressburg. He than attended the University of Frankfurt where he received the last doctorate—granted to a Jew in Nazi Germany, in 1934. In 1936, he immigrated to Palestine where he witnessed "the birth of a new state and the growth of the prestigious Hebrew University." |
| 3 | In the book Medieval Jewry in Northern France the author gives a very descriptive account of the nature of Jewish life during this time frame. The author, Robert Chazan, begins his account with Jewish life during the tenth and eleventh centuries. He discusses the issues of early economics leading to conflict, growth and development during the twelfth century, and finally the explanation of early expulsions. |
| 4 | In Mr. Chazan's discussion of the early background of Jewish life in France during the tenth and eleventh centuries, he comments that the evidence of historical facts from this period are very sparse, although we do have some to study. The evidence we have consists of few chronicles, rabbinical responsa, and commentaries on Biblical and Talmudic literature. These pieces of evidence left behind may be little, but it gives us the opportunity to peek into the early life of this civilization. We have enough facts to construct a brief outline of Jewish life in France prior to the first crusade. |
| 5 | The revival of trade in the twelfth century vitally affected the Jews of northern France, leading to eventual conflicts in all economic contexts. The Jews lived in small and large towns and by the year 1096, they spread their horizons beyond the confines of the small sub-cities in France. Their political status was never specified, possibly because it was not a status at all. At this point, their presence was thought of as a partial benefit to the rest of society and the government. They stimulated the trade and urban life. The government received an immediate and tangible profit from the Jewish taxation. There is not a well-documented tax record for this period, but it is speculated that the economical benefits of the government from the Jews was ineffably the only reason to protect them during this time of the Barony of Northern France. This reliance on the will of the governing authority by the Jewish people created great danger for their safety. The church did have some control over their community at this point; however, the political powers such as the clerical of LeMans much inflamed "anti-Jewish passion." Prior to 1096, only two cases of Jewish persecution by their protectors were documented. The general community didn't seem to instigate any anti-Jewish activity. |
| 6 | The persecution and conflicts, which did take place during this early time period, were directly related to economics. The chronicles of 992 mentioned an account of competition of economics between the renegade Sehok and a Jewish man. The battle ended in an assassination of a Jew. Beginning in the twelfth century, the Jews were supporting themselves by commerce. This led them to eventual moneylending and the levying of taxes on their belongings. The famous Rashi, from the end of the eleventh century, contributed to the reliance on commerce and moneylending:
We, the inhabitants of Troyes, along with the community in its environs, have ordained—under threat of excommunication—upon every man and women living here that they be forbidden to remove themselves from the yoke of communal responsibility…. Each one shall give per pound that which is enjoined by the member of the community, as has been practiced since the very day of its founding. We have likewise received from our predecessors the practice of paying on all possessions, except household items, houses, vineyards, and fields (16).The Jewish merchants began to lend credit, which was safeguarded by a pledge from the borrower. As the Jews became successful lenders, they were forced to pay higher taxes. The Jews paid these taxes faithfully, but with a feeling of unfairness. |
| 7 | At the beginning of the twelfth century, Jewish civilization emerged from France as a "remarkably cohesive and comprehensive organization." They were rapidly developing and their community was strengthening, becoming the fundamental authority of its people. Membership was key, it meant power. Without membership status, a person would have no decision making power. The synagogue represented centrality for the community. It was the center for Jewish worship and housed general and communal meetings as well as educational programs. In historical records, it is known that there was some system of schooling, but the details of the system are not yet recorded. The Jewish people controlled all of their internal affairs. The extensive power was allocated to scholarly figures and very localized. The weapon utilized by the Jews for disposal was excommunication. Since membership is key, and the Jews relied on inclusion in their community, not being able to communicate was an immense punishment. Their people were very intellectually creative and optimistic. They proceeded into the twelfth century in a spirit of continued growth, despite anti-Jewish activities. |
| 8 | During the development of the twelfth century, literary material appeared for the first time. The historical evidence is still sparse; however, this is a significant transformation in the study of history. The written work could now be preserved and studied. The population growth was further expanding, paralleling that of the rest of Europe. The political and economical ties between the Jewish people and the authorities was becoming more sophisticated. New, more advanced forms of Jewish self-governing evolved. This led to an exponential increase in the levels of moneylending, which in turn led to problems. |
| 9 | The economics of the twelfth century only spread the envy towards the Jews. The French authorities became ultimate guarantors for Jewish loans. The Jewish people could take no real recourse to this empowerment. The only reason that harsher actions were not submitted upon the Jews was due to the economic interest of the government on profits made off the taxation of the Jews. They were subject to other forms of taxation related to their moneylending business. Their general taxes were levied. In politics and economics, the Jews became an object of interest of the authorities due to their ability to expand new and sophisticated order in these areas. The more powerful or successful the Jews became, the more recourse the government took against them. During this period, one major catastrophe is documented. In the year 1171, in Blois, a Christian boy was drowned. A Jewish man was accused of this crime. Because of the accusation, French citizens became enraged. On May 26, 1171, more than thirty Jews were burned. |
| 10 | The activity of expulsion became a more practiced and accepted practice. The early expulsions performed by Philip Agustus had not been forgotten, but rather led into an array of expulsions later in the century. Between 1280 and 1290 a series of expulsions were committed. Wholesale expulsions became feasible and there was a profit in banishing the Jews now. One expulsion was of an entire kingdom of England. Confiscation of Jewish possessions and real estate was practiced and their debts owed were revoked. The deeper the hostility became, the easier it was to execute a general expulsion. Anti-Jewish motifs were on the rise. Frenchmen could pay for the privilege of having the Jews removed from their territory. A major emphasis was placed on the misdeeds of the Jews. The expulsion of 1306 was "similarly overlaid with a veneer of ostensible piety"(138). |
| 11 | The anti-Jewish activities eventually escalated to a series of royal moves toward their expulsion and unhappiness. The escapades ranged from general arrest to the confiscation of their goods and property. Culmination with expulsion was practiced. The three stages followed quickly after one another, differing from Philip Agustus' expulsions in the 1180's. The initial arrests were to prevent the concealment of goods and funds. The government was interested in the maximum revenue from the expulsion and depletion of the Jews. The government paid men to take seizure of the Jews. In 1306, the Capetian Monarch ordered the first banishment. By now, most Jews had made their exit from France--harsh punishment and unfair treatment drove them out. |
| 12 | The book Tradition and Crisis by Mr. Jacob Katz explores Jewish life and sentiment toward the end of the Middle Ages, prior to the era of modernity. He deals with both the civil and religious aspects of the culture. He describes the implications of the new economics and the impact this had on religious values and law; the usage of religious institutions during this era; the impact of historical events on society; historical turning points and a vision for the future; and a brief lead into early modern Jewish history. |
| 13 | Mr. Katz begins his discussion with the complex lifestyle of the Jewish people in Europe between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. During this time period, the Jews had establishment of political status, possession of liquid capital and great cohesiveness of their group over a large geographic area. All of these environmental and social factors contributed to the extent of Jewish economic activity. Besides economics, religion has always been of the utmost importance to their society. Their world vision and mentality also affected their economic situation. |
| 14 | As the Jews became more involved with the economic world around them, they were forced to deal in trades that were not accepted in the halakhic literature. An example includes buying and selling meat products that were not slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law. It was discovered that many activities were taking place that were forbidden by tradition. "Toward the end of this period, increased Jewish participation in industrial development raised the problem of Sabbath observance in a new form." Because the halakhic reasoning was flexible, and the Jewish nature to the economy was debatable and changeable, the conflicts of religious values and economic conflicts could be resolved. Rashi's writings helped to find a solution to this problem. The Jews simply had gentiles substitute for them on religious days and during the sales of forbidden merchandise. This allowed for the biggest problem to be solved—-Jews being at work on the holy days. As the Jewish community participated in a non-Jewish economy approached problems, the Talmudic Laws adjusted to the new conditions. |
| 15 | Religious and legal traditions didn't prevent Jews from participating in economics, but the ethical question arose of whether the activity was being encouraged. Ethicists were troubled over the concepts of wealth and the implications they feared would be brought to the culture in response to the concept. They feared it would lead to temptation of acquiring the money illegitimately. The importance of honesty and giving charity was regularly stressed. The population was encouraged to accept poverty and to deal with the situation if it ever approached their lifestyle. The attitudes of the people were predominantly in favor of the possession of money and wealth. After monetary use had suitable pre-conditions and restrictions, Judaism took an optimistic standpoint toward economic activity; however, economic success was not seen as a sign of rectitude before man or God. Their way of life accepted the concept of "rational economics," meaning that the use of monetary value only as a derived end and not that of any other means. This was practiced to stay in the realm of a religious lifestyle, that is, a planned ahead, rational way of life. It was legitimate to engage in this profession, but the activity was to remain entirely secular to avoid distorting Judaism. |
| 16 | In the Jewish culture, religion and religious institutions were tremendously important. They provided "justification for reserving all aspects of their traditions." Both the synagogue and the rabbinate existed specifically for satisfying the religious needs of the society—-for both religious ceremony and justification of religious law. |
| 17 | The rabbinate arose from traditions in the social institutions and the literary tradition. The right to decide what was permitted and forbidden was not only the right of those in the rabbinate office. The right was given to citizens who studied and mastered the decision-making process. If a citizen showed this level of expertise, they were given the title "moreh," which in Hebrew means "our teacher." They then had the right to hand down decisions. The institution "derived its status and effectiveness only from administration of the law and loyalty to it." |
| 18 | Next to the rabbinate was the next classic institution, the synagogue. This was the place dedicated to public prayer. During public prayer, the people confessed sins, took communion, and bonded with God. In the synagogue you enter "the realm of the sacred." There was no Jewish community that wasn't equipped with a synagogue because of the importance allocated on practicing public prayer. During this era, private prayer was not preferred and was looked at as a last choice. "The first ten men to the synagogue were deemed especially meritorious." This illustrates the emphasis placed on public prayer. If a person were to be punished, the right to participate in the public prayer in the synagogue was denied. Besides being a central point in the community, the synagogue also marked social strata. One could display their wealth here. The synagogue's importance lays solely on the unity of worship on societal values. |
| 19 | During the Middle Ages, a transition of generations occurred, as well as structural and functional changes. Each generation in this culture adds a "new story to the structure of tradition; reflecting both creative spirit and reactions to the events of their specific times" (183). Many transformations occurred throughout their history that created the framework for their modern world. They went through good times as well as catastrophe; times of developmental growth and times of restoration. Some events stimulated the Jewish intuition and some traumatized them. |
| 20 | The Polish massacres of 1648-49 left tens of thousands slaughtered. This event left no social or political reasoning for its occurrence. The lesson derived was a religious and moral one. Another realm of change began with the Sabbatean Movement and the making of new laws in Israel. The extended scope of the movement was due to the increased national unity of the Jewish culture. We are unsure whether there was a link between social class and the movement. For the most part, this movement caused frustration that led to the deviation from what was official and accepted. The Kabbala created another change, one that made a general shift in religious values. The Kabbala is the traditional and most commonly used term for the esoteric teachings of Judaism and for Jewish mysticism, especially the form that assumed in the Middle Ages from the twelfth century onward. A set of commandments was derived that determined the fate and reward of an individual, and the perfection of the world as a whole. These events were merely variations within the traditional society. |
| 21 | Two major events during the second half of the eighteenth century became major turning points; they caused unprecedented historical change. These were the rise of Hasidism in Eastern Europe and Haskala in the West. Hasidism was a popular religious movement that gave rise to a pattern of communal life and leadership as well as a particular social outlook, which emerged in Judaism and Jewry in the second half of the eighteenth century. Haskala is the Hebrew term for the enlightenment movement and ideology, which began within Jewish society in the 1770's. Haskala and Hasidism are unique and during this time period underwent a radical new process and rapid changes. The traditional society was actually destroyed due to these cultural changes. |
| 22 | Haskala affected the religious values upon which the society was constructed. Katz states "the movement's tendency toward secularization demonstrates its radical nature clearly." It didn't destroy religion, yet it clearly twisted its concepts and denied the traditional claim to exclusive authority. This movement parallels the rationalist movement and the rise of the general European Enlightenment. Historians are not forced to take a stand concerning this social change; however, with Hasidism we must take a different viewpoint. |
| 23 | Hasidism isn't dependent on the external factors for its development. This movement was much in line with Jewish tradition and society, "therefore Hasidism must be understood as a change within Jewish society" (198). Two kinds of changes are associated with this movement: that of the religious-social plane and the realm of political, economical, and social change. Katz states:
Hasidism and Haskala exemplify the two methods of renunciation by which traditional society could be affected: one that was based on charismatic religious factors and one that resulted from rationalist critique (201). |
| 24 | Each author uses a wide variety of sources to write their scholarly texts. The mixture of primary and secondary sources gives the reader the chance to get different viewpoints and avoid following one opinion or view of what could become a controversial subject. Mr. Katz has a specifically unique position because he grew up in Europe and has experienced the lifestyle of Israel and Hungry during their most anti-Semitic period. He can write from life experience because the life he endured got its roots from the development of the Middle Ages. He studied Rashi's work, which gives him much credibility. Rashi wrote first-hand accounts of life during these centuries. His experiences and knowledge gives the religious-economic stand great meaning. Both Chazan and Katz have studied and taught on this subject. Their educational background proves to be the most significant source. Their experience with the study of this culture allows them to write strong convictions of their beliefs. |
| 25 | After reviewing the literature, it became evident to me that economic development played an important role in Jewish society's independence from the governing authorities. Economics are an important part of any culture; it is a means to measure success of the elements of politics, government, religious institutions, and the value of each citizen. All of these factors are directly related to wealth. In the early stages of Jewish history, the texts do a great job of illustrating the struggle of the Jewish people to establish an independent economy: one of their own. They strive to get freedom from the taxation of the higher powers in France. The texts stress the importance of the first money-lending businesses. It seems that the more successful and intelligent the Jews became the more rules and regulations were added for them to put a damper on their success and wealth. It seems that the government was scared to lose profit and control over the Jews so they made it almost impossible for their culture to become independent. In my opinion, the factor of having no land of their own accounts for much of the Jews' dependence on another society. They could not create a tax system that benefited their community because France was already taxing them to death for the land they were living on. This factor only makes their efforts to build stable money-lending business more justified. The interest from their loans was a step toward independence and establishment of capital. |
| 26 | From the very early times up to the time of the Holocaust, Jewish people were not given equal rights and the status of citizenship. The governmental authorities that had control over the Jews discredited their self-worth, making it easier and more justified to persecute them. The early times seem to lay the perfect seeds for anti-Semitism, leading to the eventual catastrophe of the Holocaust. The Jews were not treated as equal human beings because they didn't have power in the means of land and an army. They also didn't have tax money to support their programs. The countries they lived in seemed to view them as pests and didn't allow them an equal opportunity for success. Because they were denied these rights, the communities they lived in used the Jews as an escape to their problems. They began to blame all wrong-doing on the Jewish people. This activity created psychological anti-Semitic feelings towards the Jews because they were seen as bad people. The government had begun to imprint hatred in the people's minds. |
| 27 | From day one until the Jews established a homeland, they were treated unfairly. They have been used by their authorities as a means to income and not as an end in themselves. Now that they have established a land, Israel, they will continue to fight patriotically for their freedom. |
| 28 | I obtained a professional review of Chazan's text from the Book Review Digest. I agree with the reviewers on the quality of this text. They say that it is exceptional and will "be of great use to advanced undergraduates and graduate students." They say it is a "first-rate in-depth study." The main arguments they derived from the text are similar to that of my own. They point out his main focuses to be social and economical with little emphasis on the intellectual aspects. It is said to be clearly written and comes highly recommended. |
| 29 | The professional reviewers and other accredited authors also commend Mr. Katz's book. One man from Brandeis University says that it is "an admirable achievement." The general feelings toward this book are very good because of the fact that the time period he wrote on doesn't have a lot of publicity. This gives his book uniqueness. One man said, "because of his work, we now understand that the ghetto was no longer sealed off at that time from outside opinions and that the movement towards modernity had begun long before the Jews were actually legally emancipated." All the comments about the book agree with my own opinion that the book is wonderfully written. |
| 30 |
The Jewish society fascinates me. They have struggled for the best possible life for centuries. Some of them gave up hope, but as a society they stood strong. After the tragic events of World War II, the Jews that survived found their faith in God again and didn't give up until they obtained a homeland. They have never given up. In my opinion, they are the most courageous group of individuals in history. I encourage the education and readings of Jewish History. I would recommend either of these books to anyone who wants to be seriously acquainted with an amazing account of life, love, war, and religion during the medieval times.
Nominated by Dr. Donald Epstein, History Instructor
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